Models & hypotheses about the mode of action of potentized remedies

The use of homeopathic remedies is linked to the observation from drug trials and clinical experience that, paradoxically, potentized remedies trigger significantly more and more differentiated reactions with increasing potency than is possible with the original substance (starting substance). Even inert substances can become active ingredients through this type of preparation (e.g. Lycopodium clavatum or Natrium muriaticum).

This phenomenon has been documented in clinical practice for over two centuries and forms the basis for the therapeutic application of homeopathy (Hahnemann, 1810) .

This apparent contradiction does not fit so easily into the causal thinking of a Cartesian world view and is a particular bone of contention surrounding homeopathy, which has historically caused controversy from the very beginning. This is precisely where the "nothing in - nothing on" argument comes in, which refers to the manufacturing process for remedies described by Hahnemann.

Such a thesis is based on the argument of a purely biochemical medicinal effect as the only assumed biological mechanism of action, which is no longer possible if there can no longer be any material-substantial content in the preparation from the 24th D-potency[1]. The conclusion derived from this states that the effect of homeopathic potencies with a dilution ratio greater than 10⁻²³ - a critical peak value of dilution - must therefore be pure water solutions and consequently therapeutically placebo effects.

Historical context and scientific controversy

The controversy surrounding homeopathy is not only scientific, but also philosophical. It reflects the tension between a mechanistic view of the world based on measurable substances and a holistic approach that takes into account complex interactions and systemic effects. Homeopathy should not be considered in isolation, but rather must be understood as an integral component of a broader paradigm of systems biology, which examines interactions at the molecular, cellular, and organismal levels. This perspective allows for the analysis and understanding of the effects of potentiated remedies beyond the scope of classical pharmacology.

Formation of superstructures in potentized solutions

As recent physical research of the 21st century shows, numerous changes can be observed in so-called ultra-high dilutions that become detectable only at the nanometer scale (starting from 10⁻⁹ meters = one billionth of a meter) and appear to interact intensely with one another."

Research into this could only begin with the development of multi-dimensional NMR[2] as an important analysis technique. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy provides differentiated information about molecules in solution. Of particular importance is the possibility of obtaining detailed information about molecular dynamics with the aid of relaxation parameters (The Nobel Foundation, 2002, Nobel Prize K. Wüthrich).

A comprehensive review of NMR measurements on potentized drug solutions was able to test and confirm extended working hypotheses for many effects of highly potentized drugs (Demangeat, 2018) .

In potentiated solutions, particles of the original substance are detectable even beyond the Avogadro limit. Their number approaches zero asymptotically with increasing potency.". Their number approaches the zero line asymptotically with increasing potentization.

Furthermore, during the potentiation process, supramolecular structures appear to form, which emerge in significant amounts only at higher potencies with dilution ratios in the range of 10⁻⁶ to 10⁻⁸, and become increasingly detectable with further increases in potency."

These are presumably formed by the mechanical force of the turbulence via the configuration of nano-bubbles with structures of the solution, e.g. with silicates from the water alcohol solution around individual molecules of the starting substance. This is an inter- and intramolecular self-assembly concept (SAC) (Grzelczak et al., 2010) .

The organisation and increasing growth of the resulting superstructures as well as the molecular transfer of the enclosed starting substance takes place step by step while the solution is potentiated.

Further physical evidence and measurement methods

In addition to NMR spectroscopy, other modern analytical techniques also provide indications of the existence of superstructures in highly potentized solutions. For example, investigations using Raman spectroscopy show changes in the hydrogen bonds of water in potentized solutions, which indicate an altered water structure (Rao et al., 2007) . These changes could form the basis for the stability of the superstructures.

Furthermore, studies using dynamic light scattering (DLS) have shown that nanoparticles with sizes in the range of 1-100 nm can be detected in potentized solutions, even at dilutions beyond the Avogadro limit (Chikramane et al., 2010) . These nanoparticles could act as carriers of the specific information of the starting substance.

The role of mechanical turbulence in the potentization process is further substantiated by the work of Elia et al. (2008 and 2014) . They show that the energetic effect during potentization changes thermodynamic properties of the solution, such as specific heat capacity and electrical conductivity. These changes indicate that the potentization process not only causes a dilution, but also an active physical restructuring of the solution.

Biological effect hypotheses

Potentization is therefore not about dissolving out chemical components by thinning them out until nothing chemically measurable is left, but about the creation of specific superstructures in the potentization process and their possible effects. The biological effect has not yet been sufficiently clarified; to date, a duality of active principles has been propagated (Demangeat, 2018) :

  • Starting substances and their low potencies (with a dilution ratio smaller than 10⁻⁶) bind to specific ligand receptors.
  • High potencies interact, depending on their potency level, via nanoparticles ranging from 1–2 nm (dilution ratio 10⁻⁹) up to hundreds of nanometers with various cellular targets, which depend on the individual nanostructure.
  • Inverse effects occurring in potencies within a dilution range of 10⁻³ to 10⁻⁶ correspond to the transition between substance and superstructure.

It follows that the number of potentization steps is the determining factor for the biological activity and not the pure dilution.

Molecular and cellular mechanisms of action

The hypothesis of superstructures is supported by experimental studies investigating the biological effects of highly potentized solutions. Marzotto et al. (2014) and Bigagli et al. (2016) were thus able to show that highly potentized remedies trigger specific gene expression patterns in cell cultures, which differ from those of pure water solutions.These effects could be explained by the interaction of nanostructures with cellular signalling pathways, in particular by the activation of stress response pathways that are consistent with the concept of hormesis (Bell et al., 2013). Hormesis describes the stimulatory effect of low doses of a substance that would be inhibitory or toxic at higher doses. The extent to which hormesis phenomena are significant for the effect of potentized remedies is, even if it seems obvious, still unclear from the current state of research. (Calabrese & Baldwin, 2002)

In addition, studies indicate that the superstructures in potentized solutions can possibly cause epigenetic changes. Marzotto et al. (2014) found evidence that highly potentized remedies influence the expression of genes involved in the regulation of inflammatory processes. This could explain why highly potentized remedies often show more differentiated and lasting effects in clinical practice.

Connection to nanomedicine

The parallels between the superstructures in potentized solutions and the principles of nanotechnology in medicine are becoming increasingly apparent. In nanomedicine, nanoparticles are used in a targeted manner to transport active substances to specific cell types or to modulate signalling pathways (Farokhzad & Langer, 2009).

The nanoparticles detected in potentized solutions could fulfil similar functions by serving as carriers of specific physical or chemical information. This supports the hypothesis that homeopathy can be considered as a form of micro- or nanodosing compatible with the principles of nanomedicine.

Conclusion and outlook

The extent to which the proposed models are sufficient to explain all the phenomena that occur with potentized solutions remains to be seen. Irrespective of this, it is a matter of decades of observations in science and practice, which offer a logical explanatory model for many observable phenomena of dosage and experience in dealing with high potencies.

This includes the following observations:

  • Low potencies tend to have a non-specific effect.
  • High potencies produce more and differentiated drug reactions.
  • Their effect can be more intensive and long-lasting, which is why they need to be given less often.

The increasing suprastructures with potentization could also confirm the biological concepts of hormesis, which form a general basis of all stimulus regulation therapies. If these results are further confirmed and consolidated, homeopathy can be understood as micro/nano-dosed pharmacology. Homeopathy would thus be part of the currently emerging range of nanomedicine.

Significance for research and practice

The findings so far suggest that homeopathy benefits from interdisciplinary research that combines physics, chemistry and biology. Future studies could focus on characterising the superstructures, for example by combining NMR, Raman spectroscopy and high-resolution electron microscopy to determine the exact composition and dynamics of the nanoparticles.

Clinical studies investigating the specific effects of highly potentized drugs could also develop standardised protocols to improve the reproducibility of the effects.

"These findings form an interesting starting point for further research. To ignore them or, as occasionally happens in anti-homeopathy campaigns, to ridicule them would be comparable to refusing to recognise a compass as a navigation instrument, which has been in use since the 11th-12th century, but only became explainable with the description of geomagnetism in the 16th century, i.e. around 400 years later." (Bergholz, 2022; transl. by the author)

Appeal to scientific openness

The history of science shows that paradigm-changing discoveries are often initially met with scepticism. Research into homeopathy therefore requires an open and critical attitude that allows for new methods and hypotheses without rashly falling back on established models. The integration of homeopathy into modern medicine could not only expand our understanding of nanostructures and their biological effects, but also open up new approaches for personalised therapies.


[1] The scientist Amedeo Avogadro hypothesized in the 19th century that equal volumes of ideal gases under the same conditions (pressure and temperature) contain the same number of particles. The exact particle density under standard conditions was later first estimated by Johann Josef Loschmidt (Loschmidt constant). The number of particles (e.g., atoms or molecules) in one mole of a starting substance—the so-called Avogadro constant—was later experimentally determined and is approximately 6 × 10²³ particles per mole. At homeopathic potentizations such as D24 or C12, which correspond to a dilution ratio of 1:10²⁴, the particle concentration lies beyond the Avogadro limit.

[2] Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy: Analytical method based on the interaction of magnetically active atomic nuclei with electromagnetic radiation. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy can be used to analyse the structure of molecules and their interaction, e.g. in solutions or tissues.


Sources and references

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Authors: qk | Rev.: glt | Editor: pz | last modified August 2, 2025